Chapter 26: America during the Second World War

Chapter 26: America during the Second World War

1. How did events in Asia and in Europe affect the domestic debate over isolationism versus intervention in the war?

Amidst Hitler’s fascist regime and scheme of world domination, and the Japanese invasions in China, America stood in a state of neutrality declaring acts in 1935 and 1936 restricting trade, loans and travel with belligerent nations in order to prevent US intervention. However these events brought the debate toward lifting the ban to help France and Britain. The cash-and-carry provision allowed the arrangement of loans, exports, and shipping under the condition that they were transported by their own ships and purchased by cash. This especially benefitted the British as their naval forces dominated the Atlantic sea lines. In addition the Wagner-Rogers bill was lifted further restricting Jewish immigration. FDR also claimed providing arsenal through loans would further keep the country out of war, declaring the lend-lease act allowing arms to be loaned, as the British ran out of money. However the surprise of Pearl Harbor pushed the US into an informal declaration of war. Despite the Isolationists consistent demand for separation and opposition for the destroyers for bases trade in Britain.

2. What central strategies arose in fighting the war in both Europe and Asia?

Fighting the war in both Europe and Asia required a change in strategy. The casualties already flustered isolationists so a form of deciphering German codes prior to deliverance was developed to be a step ahead of the third Reich. A field command was established with the British. They decided to prevent the elimination of the Soviet Union as to deter Hitler's attention from Britain. They decided to invade French North Africa. Overload was the central strategy, they assembled the largest invasion force in England, used diversionary tactics to stage an attack on the narrowest part of the English channel, then dropped behind enemy lines. In the Pacific, the indecisive Joint chiefs of staff authorized both strategies: an Offensive launched from the Australian HQ through New Guinea and the Philippines then onto Japan, and an advance across the smaller islands of the central Pacific, bypassing the Philippines.

3. How did the mobilization for war produce economic and social changes in American life?

The conflicts called for total war, requiring the rapid mobilization and investment of the country to produce, munitions, arms, supplies, and troops to fight the war. As a result of the Selective service act, many left their jobs to join the efforts. Therefore Women and Minorities became more attractive as this draft depleted the skilled white workers. Roosevelt order the Fair Economic Practices Commission to eliminate discrimination and the discrepancy of wages between white men and the minorities, and women. In 1942 Roosevelt established the Office of War Information to spread propaganda, the Media, and Hollywood producers heard his call producing many war schemed advertisements and films. Unfortunately, many gender and racial issues remained. Women were not compensated as equally as men in wages especially in "female" jobs. Minorities also faced conflicts in equal wages; blacks had their blood plasma segregated from whites, riots spurred out against Mexicans and Africans wearing Zoots suits.

4. What major institutions and policies shaped the reconstruction of the postwar world?

After the war ended much of the economy and society was left in a mess, in order to maintain peace the Security Council was implemented. Essentially in the Atlantic charter of 1941 at a conference in Moscow the Allied Powers pledged to replace the League of Nations. At the Bretton Woods conference of 1944 the International Monetary fund was assembled by the nations to maintain a fixed international exchange rate. Later the World Banks was also created to provide loans for war battered countries, and to promote world trade. In 1948 the GATT was established the institutional groundwork for breaking up closed trading bloc sand implementing free and fair trade agreements. In addition, many negotiations were made between the nations. Germany was divided into four zones of occupation in a conference in Yalta and allowed the freedom to vote in Poland, Korea was divided, the US supported Britain and France in reassembling their Southeast Asian colonies, Philippines was granted independence, the Good Neighbor Policy was implemented to suppress any military conflict produced during the war and the OIAA was created to further expand their cultural and economic ties, and Jews moved to Palestine.

5. What factors did President Truman consider with respect to dropping the atomic bomb on Japan?

Truman came into presidency in a fragile situation. Nations were amidst a world war and the US had just been attacked by the US. They had to retaliate; the Manhattan project was implemented to develop research on the fission of atomic particles. A Jewish scientist, Albert Einstein declared that the atomic bomb be dropped on Japan, fearful that the Germans were getting ahead in their research. Truman had also just discovered the occurrences of Los Alamos.

Terms:

Neutrality Act of 1937:

Legislation established during the World War in order to sustain neutrality in the US. It restricted the loans, trade, and travel with the belligerent nations. However this act was revised to require that the belligerents take the cargo themselves and pay cash in order to minimize the risk to American exports, loans and shipping. To further ease and support the British, their naval superiority and control of the Atlantic seas benefitted them when in 194q the Lend Lease act allowed munitions to be loaned to the Allied powers.

Panay Incident:

Amidst the War, Japan had assembled in China capturing Shanghai, Nanjing, Shandong, and Beijing. Japan demanded that China become subservient to Japan, that under their leadership an East Asian Co-Prosperity sphere would create a self-sufficient economic zone and liberate them from the West Colonialism.

Blitzkrieg:

A massive coordinate military strike by German military and air forces. In April 1940, a blitzkrieg began to overrun Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. Such swift speed surprised Allied leaders in Paris and London. Britain barely evacuated its troops leaving its equipment. Hitler then installed a pro-Nazi government in Vichy in Southern France. Within 6 weeks Hitler had seized control of Europe's Atlantic coastline.

Selective Training and Service Act of 1940:

The first peacetime draft in US history. This act conscripted men to the draft leaving many of the industries and companies without workers. This later led to the encouragement of minorities and women to work and take their place.

'Destroyers-for-bases':

The US helped Britain from the beginning of the war with the cash and carry provision and lend/lease act. They then traded 50 naval destroyers for the right to build eight naval bases on British territory. However, many isolationists extremely disliked this, as it was further building ties with foreign nations and pushing the US out of neutrality and into the war.

Lend-lease Act:

1941, Roosevelt enabled the loan of munitions to the Allies in hopes of avoiding war while becoming an arsenal for the allied cause. This stirred opposition in Stalin, and was then extended to the communist regime.

Atlantic Charter:

 1941 at a conference in Moscow the Allied Powers pledged to replace the League of Nations. At the Bretton Woods conference of 1944 the International Monetary fund was assembled by the nations to maintain a fixed international exchange rate. Later the World Banks was also created to provide loans for war battered countries, and to promote world trade.

Reuben James:

East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere:

A proposition made by Japan amidst their attack on china to liberate themselves from western colonialism to sustain a self-sufficient economy.

ENIGMA:

German scientist had integrated an ultra secret code-encrypting device that ciphered millions of keys daily enabling millions of different methods to encrypting the code leaving it immune to code breaking. However several polish men escaped from Germany and discovered a way to break the code forming an operation in England to decrypt German communications.

Operation Overload:

The largest invasion force history that assembled in England on D-day, directed by Eisenhower to fool German troops. They misinformed and diverted the Germans making them think they would land at the narrowest part of the English Channel rather than the Normandy region. Then 4,000 allied sips landed troops in Normandy and took the Germans by surprise.

Midway Island:

Following the first strike of America at the Battle of Coral Sea, Japan sought to destroy what remained of the US navy and amassed 600 planes and 200 ships to take Midway Island. However US naval intelligence warned Chester Nimitz of the plan.

Chester Nimitz:

Admiral who was warned by US Naval intelligence of an impending attack on their naval fleet and Japans motive to take midway island. Surprised Japanese Armada by sinking four Japanese carriers and destroying 322 planes.

Okinawa:

American had begun advancing closer and closer to Japan as they took over Saipan in 1944 and Okinawa. However this represented the mass brutality as 48,000 American soldiers died, and 120,000 Japanese soldiers died. This enticed the use of air warfare.

Firebombing:

The official name for the incendiary raids on Japan. They constituted precision as opposed to area bombing and was measured in the amount of square are that was set to ashes. Lemay summarized the strategy as, "bomb and burn them until they quit".

'Unconditional Surrender':

In order to attain surrender from Japan, the US began an incendiary raid of firebombing and closed Japanese Seaports to prevent the import of munitions, supplies, and evacuation. This further escalated when Jewish scientist Albert Einstein pushed the idea of sub atomic fission in the use of a bomb to tactfully attack Japan. The Atomic bomb was then dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki when the Manhattan project rushed to develop a bomb prior to German development.

Manhattan Project:

Under Harry Truman's presidency, the World war was in a fragile situation and America sought for an unconditional surrender. Roosevelt developed the top-secret research site to subsequently enlist the top scientist to develop the latest in atomic and sub atomic fission to develop an atomic bomb.

'Fat Man and Little boy':

The names of the two atomic bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima.

WASPs:

Women’s Air Force Service Pilots were proposed but never accepted during the First World War, enlisted some 350,000 women. It essentially represented the dawn of a new era; women were being employed in jobs that would have been obscene for women. However these jobs were often portrayed as temporary by the media " a woman can do anything as long as she looks beautiful.

Ex. Order 9066:

As the war heightened Americans began to discriminate against native Japanese-Americans. They began internment camps grabbing the Japanese, Germans, and other American citizens involved in the war into internment camps. However it was noted in the Supreme Court in a trial that this order was unconstitutional and ended the camps.

Zoot Suit Riots:

Flamboyant outfits that were composed of oversized trousers worn by young Mexicans and Africans to symbolize their ethnicity. 1943 a riot spurred when soldiers and sailors from nearby military bases attack these men, military order restraining soldiers quelled the dilemma.

Tehran:

Stalin pledged to send troops to Asia as soon as Germany surrendered in 1943. The Soviet Union and the US then divided Korea, which had zones that would later emerge into antagonistic states.

Yalta:

Several significant conference took place in Yalta, Ukraine: the allied powers divided Germany into four zones of occupancy, Soviets agreed to permit the freedom to vote in post war Poland, Korea was also divided into three zones.

IMF:

At the Bretton Woods conference of 1944 in New Hampshire, assembled nations created the International Monetary fund to maintain a stable exchange rate by ensuring the each nation currency could be converted into any international currency at a fixed rate.

GATT:

In 1948 the GATT was established the institutional groundwork for breaking up closed trading blocs and implementing free and fair trade agreements.

Chapter 24: The 1920's

Chapter 24: The 1920's

1. What were the achievements and limitations of 'people's of capitalism'?

After the World war had settled the people began to think differently. Under the administration of President Harding things sought a modern route and there came the beginning of the modernist era. People relied on science more than the justifications of the bible or religion and due to Americas heightening economy the people could finally enjoy amenities and pleasures of the wealthy. It appeared the gap between the wealthy and poor was slowly started to cease existence. Rather, the quantity of impoverished populous dropped exponentially in numbers and the people could afford a house, car, nice clothes and stock. Or rather live the American dream. However most of these individuals had to sacrifice one amenity or luxury for the other, for example one family could not afford nice clothes but enjoyed having a luxurious car. This issue was resolved later when financing plans came into play allowing consumers to put a down payment and promise to pay the difference in installments.

2. Why is the 1920s sometimes described as the 'age of celebrity', and what caused this culture to arise?

People’s capitalism and the dawn of a new America had sent people into the pursuit of happiness. They sought pleasure, the view on sexuality had changed from strictly birth to pleasure, and citizens could afford luxurious amenities. However as technology advanced so did the market and media. I see this era as the marketing boom because the media utilized celebrities in ways that would have been deemed in precedent to the era to maximize profits. Simple professional athletes achievement would be announce to an audience of millions through the radio, newspapers, word of mouth, and promoters. Marketing and celebrities were the new bubble.

3. What were the key similarities and differences in the policies of Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover?

All were conservationists who did not believe in the centralization of government or interference in people’s lives and the economy. Harding desired to bring society back to "normalcy" and immediately decrease the power of the central government. Coolidge sought after big businesses and desire to lessen governmental control over the economy. He implemented the Revenue act that slashed the high income and estate taxes established by progressives and were know for his laissez fair attitude. Hoover believed in associating and cooperating industries. His policy was associationalism and sough to convince corporation to negotiate, cooperate, and be of public service.

4. Who were the traditionalists of the 1920s, and what did they believe?

The traditionalists consisted of white Protestants, racially inferior foreigners were overrunning most of which resided in rural areas and small towns that believed the country. Although the 1920s benefited prosperity for many the traditionalists encountered overproduction that was impoverishing a substantial number of farmers.

5. How were the experiences of ethnic and racial communities in 1920s America similar to each other and how were they different?

Despite benefitting from the prosperity of the 1920s much of the immigrants still faced severed discrimination and prejudice. European Americans populated the Northeast and Midwest, and were mostly skilled and unskilled laborers but still faced harsh treatment. Italian was outraged by the case of Sacco and Vanzetti and Jews were frustrated with the prohibition from schools like Harvard. African Americans generally populated the South and benefitted from a great cultural bloom with jazz. However, they were still racially discriminated and even prohibited from a jazz bar and nightclub in Harlem. Mexican Americans were mostly farms and also populated the south; the immigration restriction act and newly found border patrol greatly restricted the flow of migrants. They were severely underpaid and seen as racially inferior.

Terms:

'Peoples Capitalism':

After the World war, America industries and economy was greatly strengthened and therefore close the gap between the impoverished and wealthy. America became the land of opportunity where a poor man could come to riches. The middle class had become majority and could finally afford similar luxuries and amenities the rich embellished themselves with.

Flappers:

During this era many women had lucidly began to change their ideals. They began to think unconventionally and asserted their individuality. They were very fashionable and sought out to break the informal rules governing the lives of young women. They created a new saucy, outspoken female personality with a new appreciation for the pleasures in life.

Spirit of St. Louis:

During the age of celebrity a young pilot, Charles Lindbergh piloted his monoplane 34 hours without sleep to be the first individual to cross the Atlantic. When he landed in Paris, 4 million Parisian and fans waited for him. He essentially exemplified that a simple man could make a difference in an increasingly industrialized and bureaucratized world.

Sultan of Swat:

George "babe" Ruth achieved greater fame in the age of the celebrity than ever imagined possible. Not only that, but he slugged more home runs than though humanly possible. He was know from overcoming the hardships of a poor and orphaned youth and yet became the most well recognized Slugging star.

NWP:

The National Women's party's president, Alice Paul prevailed to pass the Equal Rights amendment through congress granting men and women equal rights throughout the US and every place subject to it's jurisdiction.

LWV:

Previously known as the National Women's Suffrage Association, the League of Women Voters encouraged women to run for the elective office, educated voters on the issues at stake, and aided the impoverished, mentally ill, and female and child laborers. The LWV fought against the NWP in equality, the LWV saw women as different and requiring governmental protection in the workplace.

Teapot Dome Scandal:

Under Harding’s presidency, the K street house became infamous as a place of business profiting the Ohio gang for selling government appointments, judicial pardons, and police protection to bootleggers. Secretary of interior Albert Fall convinced president Harding to transfer control of large government oil reserves at Teapot Dome. Fall then leased them secretly to two oil tycoons, Harry Sinclair and Edward Doheny, for $400,000.

Associationism:

President Hoover sought to convince participants to cooperate rather than compete, to negotiate rather than engage in conflict, and be of public service rather than being selfish. Hoover didn't want industries to be controlled by the government, but rather to convince private corporations to abandon their selfish ways and alternate for cooperation and public service. Hoover saw the economy built on the principle of association or as historian Ellis Hawley called it "Associationalism".

Washington Conference:

President Hoover, although not an attending negotiator, helped to design the Washington conference on the Limitation of Armaments. His role played a great influence on the outcome of the conference, he also helped Secretary of State Charles Hughes utilize the economic information he had given him to effectively present lucid proposals of disarmament. Fortunately they won stunning accord, the Five-Power treaty: Britain, Italy, Japan, France, and the US agreed to scrap over 2 millions tons of warships.

Dawes Plan:

During one of the conferences, Chicago banks and Chief negotiator, Charles Dawes, produced the Dawes plan. This reduced Germany's reparations from $542 million to $250 million annually and called on US and foreign banks to stimulate the German economy with $200 million in loans. J.P. Morgan raised $1 billion from American investors and the German economy appeared to stabilize.

McNary-Haugen Bill:

To protect agricultural interests from failure, congress proposed the McNary-Haugen bill, which called on the government to erect high tariffs on foreign produce and to purchase surplus U.S. crops on the world market for whatever prices they fetched.

Johnson-Reed Act:

After the World war the conditions of European nations, specifically Germans, were in a horrid economic, political, and societal condition. As a result, much of them left their lives to pursue a new life in the land of opportunity. However, the vast influx of immigrants imbalanced and crowded America's diversity. In order to preserve its diversity the government regulated the inflow of immigrants by allowing only 2% of the already settled European/Asian race to migrate. As a result annual immigration from transoceanic nations dropped by 80%.

Scopes Act:

The Scopes trial sought widespread attention on the issue of education. The ACLU to challenge the Tennessee constitutional law of teaching evolution in class utilized a 24-year-old biology teacher in Tennessee, John Scopes. He was immediately arrested and taken into trial, William Bryan; the secretary of state quickly sought his prosecution. However the trial dragged on as John incriminated himself and asked for Bryan's case on the bible and truth just to ridicule him. Bryan was ridiculed and convinced that not the entire bible was the "truth" and written by god.

Harlem Renaissance:

After the war racial discrimination and equality only got worse. As a result the blacks realized that they were the last advancing race and that they were being racially held back. They took stand and a movement led by Marcus Garvey swept the blacks, they became assertive and celebrate their rich culture. However even the cultural advances did not cease the racial prejudice, blacks were seen as inferior and even prohibited from the Harlem nightclubs.

Chapter 23: War and Society, 1914-1920

Chapter 23: War and Society, 1914-1920

1. Why did the US become involved in the First World War?

As the war began, all the nations turned to the US for supplies, resources, and artillery. However the British blockaded the German ports, this in turn severely damaged the already limited trade between Germany and plummeted trade with the Central powers 99% over 2 years. The British blockade clearly violated American neutrality. To avoid recession, the US did not retaliate by suspending loans or exports to Great Britain and therefore inevitably drew itself into the war.

2. What problems did the US government encounter as it sought to mobilize its people and economy for war, and how were they overcome?

 Mobilizing for “Total” War, Wilson created several centralized government agencies, each charged with supervising nationwide activity in its assigned economic sector. In order to pay for the massive amounts incurred for munitions, and supplies, Wilson raised taxes significantly: 67% income tax on the wealthy, 25% inheritance tax, and corporations had to pay excess profits tax. He established the CPI to popularize war, and their message imparted to many a deep love of country and sense of participation in grand democratic experiment. They used repression to achieve domestic unity, established the Food Administration substantially increased production and distribution of food to millions of troops and European civilians shifted railroad system from private to public control. War increased demand for industrial labor while cutting supply, as a result Wilson employed new workers recruited from rural south and encourage many women to enter the industrial workforce. In order to organize military labor he empowered administration to organize a draft for the Selective Service. However the U.S. Army faced difficult task of transforming ethnically and racially diverse millions into a professional fighting force and General Pershing segregated black troops from white. Despite the ethnic problems, American Expeditionary Force was impressive. By early 1918, CPI’s campaign had developed a darker, coercive side and they called for the report of neighbors, coworkers, and ethnics whom they suspected of subverting war effort. Evidently German Americans became objects of popular hatred. Espionage, Sabotage, and Sedition Acts (1917 and 1918) gave administration broad powers to silence and imprison dissenters.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    

3. What were Woodrow Wilson's peace proposals?

At the Paris Peace Conference, Wilson announced the Treaty of Versailles and negotiated for lands controlled by “Big Four” (U.S., Britain, France, and Italy). Wilson also deemed his Fourteen Points that all nations need to abide by code of conduct: free trade, freedom of the seas, diplomacy, and disarmament. All nations need to recognize the principle of self-determination: redrawing map of Europe, give people of Austrian-Hungary empire independence, League of Nations. However, most of Wilson’s principles were omitted or amended. Wilson won an agreement on creation of League of Nations to serve as international parliament and judiciary, establishing rules of international behavior and resolving disputes between nations through rational and peaceful means.

4. Why were there so much American opposition to the League of Nations and what was the crux of their argument?

Two groups opposed this, the Irreconcilables and a group led by Senator Henry Lodge. From the beginning, the nation did not desire to involve itself in the war. Reluctantly being drawn in out of its neutrality the people became skeptical. And as thousands of citizens died aboard passenger liners such as the Lusitania and Sussex, the people doubted the nations sovereignty. Wilson consistency for 'peace without victory' through negotiation fell under doubt. Lodge and the Republicans claimed that changing the world and their foreign policy would put the US economy and autonomy at risk. They would rather sustain Roosevelt's vision of having a few great nations sphere of influence and to let Europe return to its politics as opposed to allowing every group of people could form their own nation.

5. Did the First World War enhance or interrupt the pursuit of liberty and equality on the home front?

As the world war ended society went into convulsion. Workers were set on obtaining the purchasing power they lost to inflation. Radicals saw conflict between capital and labor deeming an inevitable socialist revolution they claimed had already begun. Servicemen were nervous about regaining their jobs as female and Hispanic workers had taken their place and looked at blacks with hostility. Black veterans were in no condition to return to racist segregation and prejudice. And unfortunately the federal government put itself vulnerable and incapable of intervening in social conflicts because they immediately took down War industries board and National War Labor Board from their discomfort of the centralization of power during the war.

Terms:

Franz Ferdinand:

Archduke Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. He was assassinated on June 28, 1914 in Bosnia. This act was meant to protest the Austro-Hungarian imperialism and gave alliance of the Bosnians, Croatians and Balkans. However Austria-Hungary declared a war on Serbia, holding them responsible for the assassination.

Triple Entente:

Great Britain, France, and Russia.

Central Powers:

Also known as the Triple alliance: Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire.

Lusitania:

To combat British control Germany revealed the U-boat or submarine. The Lusitania was a British passenger liner carrying many innocent citizens amongst US citizens that was torpedoed by the German U-boat in suspicion of carrying munitions, which was later proven true. Germany had warned that they would attack ships carrying munitions and debated on the neutrality pledge but Germany claimed that Britain's blockade was a violation.

Sussex Pledge:

Essentially it was Germany's warning of unrestricted submarine warfare if the US failed to permit neutral ships to pass through Great Britain's naval blockade. Prior to the pledge, German U-boats sunk the French passenger liner Sussex that carried many American citizens.

'Peace without victory':

This was the slogan coined by Wilson during the First World War to put aside the suspicions of citizens and gain their support. These words drew deeply to American political roots and traditions, and as a result sustained a vast amount of enthusiasm by the people who had previously opposed distrusted state power and the war. However Wilson's hope for peace torn apart a year after the war had ended as violent labor dispute and race riots erupted.

Zimmerman Telegram:

Arthur Zimmerman, the German minister in Mexico, asked the Mexican Government to attack the US in the event of a war between the US and Germany. In return Germany would give them a large fee and regain the lost provinces of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. This was passed onto the US president in an infamous telegram known as the Zimmerman telegram.

General John. J Pershing:

Under the command of the US army, General Pershing organized and fashioned the ethically diverse millions of soldiers into a professional fighting force. However, instead of leaving the racial prejudice behind, he segregated black troop from white.

Fourteen Points:

Food Administration:

Headed by mining engineer and executive Herbert Hoover, the Food Administration placed an efficient food distribution system that delivered food to millions of troops and European civilians.

War Industries Board:

Selective Service Act:

During the war the US had to put everything aside to commence total war, use its GDP, economy, all of its resources to engage in war. To do such the US needed to build an army and the Wilson administration sought conscription. Furthermore, Wilson implemented the Selective Service act in 1917, drafting of most men of a certain age, regardless of their wealth, ethnicity, or social standing.

National War Labor Board:

The National War Labor Board brought together the representatives of labor, industry, and the public to resolve labor disputes. William Taft co-chaired with Samuel Gompers of the Federation of Labor.

Liberty Bonds:

Evidently during the war all resources, supplies and munitions incurred a vast debt. To pay these off Wilson proposed higher taxes on the wealthy along with 30-year Government bonds sold to individuals at a 3.5 percent annual return rate call Liberty bonds

CPI:

Committee on Public Information. A new agency set in place by Wilson to popularize the war. The CPI distributed millions of pamphlets explaining the war; it also trained a force of 75,000 four-minute men to deliver compelling and uplifting presentations about war. It exploded the media with direct information on the war and progress of the war.

Liberty Cabbage:

Renamed German American Word for Sauerkraut.

Immigration Restriction Act:

The prohibition act that restricted immigrants from vices like alcohol believing it would lead to corruption was implemented as the Immigration Restriction Act. However many immigrants refused to abide as they did not seek to be “reformed”.

Espionage:

During the war many of the immigrants currently living in America had several relatives in the Central powers and therefore were put under suspicion of espionage or spying and reporting information back to their native government.

Sabotage:

One of the main concerns toward the migrant families of the Central powers was sabotage. Many German families were treated with hostility in suspicion or conspiracy of espionage and or sabotage.

Sedition Acts:

Congress gave the administration the powers to silence and even imprison dissenters. They sought to repress those whom were expose the government, performing espionage, or sabotaging US plans.

Treaty of Versailles:

The peace agreement signed after the War in Versailles palace in France declaring the fault of Germany, demanding billions in reparations, and the disarmament of their military.

'Irreconcilables':

A group of midwestern progressives that opposed the war from the beginning and desired separation of the US from Europe were known as the Irreconcilables. They opposed the involvement of the US in the League of Nations.

Red Scare:

The widespread fear of the early 20th century that Radical was planning to establish a communist government on US soil. This outraged the government leading to further repressing action, and leading to it's climax on new years of 1920 when 33 homes were broken into on the suspect of radical communist gathering.

Sacco and Vanzetti:

The epitome of the Red Scare and height of repression was the case of two Italian American anarchists, Sacco and Vanzetti. They were accused of armed robbery and murder, and despite their pleas of innocence, the lack of strong evidence against them, and many protests, they were still convicted and sentenced to death.

Marcus Garvey:

Garvey was a Jamaican born Black Nationalist that demanded the separation and self-sufficiency of blacks. He led his movement with the ideal that they had a rich culture dated back many centuries and that they should achieve greatness by nationalizing in Africa. This brought much dispute between Du Bois and himself. However his movement endured.

New Negro:

The recognition and nationalization of the blacks as led by Marcus Garvey.