Thursday, November 29, 2012

Chapter 24: The 1920's


Chapter 24: The 1920's

1. What were the achievements and limitations of 'people's of capitalism'?
After the World war had settled the people began to think differently. Under the administration of President Harding things sought a modern route and there came the beginning of the modernist era. People relied on science more than the justifications of the bible or religion and due to Americas heightening economy the people could finally enjoy amenities and pleasures of the wealthy. It appeared the gap between the wealthy and poor was slowly started to cease existence. Rather, the quantity of impoverished populous dropped exponentially in numbers and the people could afford a house, car, nice clothes and stock. Or rather live the American dream. However most of these individuals had to sacrifice one amenity or luxury for the other, for example one family could not afford nice clothes but enjoyed having a luxurious car. This issue was resolved later when financing plans came into play allowing consumers to put a down payment and promise to pay the difference in installments.

2. Why is the 1920s sometimes described as the 'age of celebrity', and what caused this culture to arise?
People’s capitalism and the dawn of a new America had sent people into the pursuit of happiness. They sought pleasure, the view on sexuality had changed from strictly birth to pleasure, and citizens could afford luxurious amenities. However as technology advanced so did the market and media. I see this era as the marketing boom because the media utilized celebrities in ways that would have been deemed in precedent to the era to maximize profits. Simple professional athletes achievement would be announce to an audience of millions through the radio, newspapers, word of mouth, and promoters. Marketing and celebrities were the new bubble.

3. What were the key similarities and differences in the policies of Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover?
All were conservationists who did not believe in the centralization of government or interference in people’s lives and the economy. Harding desired to bring society back to "normalcy" and immediately decrease the power of the central government. Coolidge sought after big businesses and desire to lessen governmental control over the economy. He implemented the Revenue act that slashed the high income and estate taxes established by progressives and were know for his laissez fair attitude. Hoover believed in associating and cooperating industries. His policy was associationalism and sough to convince corporation to negotiate, cooperate, and be of public service.

4. Who were the traditionalists of the 1920s, and what did they believe?
The traditionalists consisted of white Protestants, racially inferior foreigners were overrunning most of which resided in rural areas and small towns that believed the country. Although the 1920s benefited prosperity for many the traditionalists encountered overproduction that was impoverishing a substantial number of farmers.

5. How were the experiences of ethnic and racial communities in 1920s America similar to each other and how were they different?
Despite benefitting from the prosperity of the 1920s much of the immigrants still faced severed discrimination and prejudice. European Americans populated the Northeast and Midwest, and were mostly skilled and unskilled laborers but still faced harsh treatment. Italian was outraged by the case of Sacco and Vanzetti and Jews were frustrated with the prohibition from schools like Harvard. African Americans generally populated the South and benefitted from a great cultural bloom with jazz. However, they were still racially discriminated and even prohibited from a jazz bar and nightclub in Harlem. Mexican Americans were mostly farms and also populated the south; the immigration restriction act and newly found border patrol greatly restricted the flow of migrants. They were severely underpaid and seen as racially inferior.

Terms:

'Peoples Capitalism':
After the World war, America industries and economy was greatly strengthened and therefore close the gap between the impoverished and wealthy. America became the land of opportunity where a poor man could come to riches. The middle class had become majority and could finally afford similar luxuries and amenities the rich embellished themselves with.

Flappers:
During this era many women had lucidly began to change their ideals. They began to think unconventionally and asserted their individuality. They were very fashionable and sought out to break the informal rules governing the lives of young women. They created a new saucy, outspoken female personality with a new appreciation for the pleasures in life.


Spirit of St. Louis:
During the age of celebrity a young pilot, Charles Lindbergh piloted his monoplane 34 hours without sleep to be the first individual to cross the Atlantic. When he landed in Paris, 4 million Parisian and fans waited for him. He essentially exemplified that a simple man could make a difference in an increasingly industrialized and bureaucratized world.

Sultan of Swat:
George "babe" Ruth achieved greater fame in the age of the celebrity than ever imagined possible. Not only that, but he slugged more home runs than though humanly possible. He was know from overcoming the hardships of a poor and orphaned youth and yet became the most well recognized Slugging star.

NWP:
The National Women's party's president, Alice Paul prevailed to pass the Equal Rights amendment through congress granting men and women equal rights throughout the US and every place subject to it's jurisdiction.

LWV:
Previously known as the National Women's Suffrage Association, the League of Women Voters encouraged women to run for the elective office, educated voters on the issues at stake, and aided the impoverished, mentally ill, and female and child laborers. The LWV fought against the NWP in equality, the LWV saw women as different and requiring governmental protection in the workplace.


Teapot Dome Scandal:
Under Harding’s presidency, the K street house became infamous as a place of business profiting the Ohio gang for selling government appointments, judicial pardons, and police protection to bootleggers. Secretary of interior Albert Fall convinced president Harding to transfer control of large government oil reserves at Teapot Dome. Fall then leased them secretly to two oil tycoons, Harry Sinclair and Edward Doheny, for $400,000.

Associationism:
President Hoover sought to convince participants to cooperate rather than compete, to negotiate rather than engage in conflict, and be of public service rather than being selfish. Hoover didn't want industries to be controlled by the government, but rather to convince private corporations to abandon their selfish ways and alternate for cooperation and public service. Hoover saw the economy built on the principle of association or as historian Ellis Hawley called it "Associationalism".


Washington Conference:
President Hoover, although not an attending negotiator, helped to design the Washington conference on the Limitation of Armaments. His role played a great influence on the outcome of the conference, he also helped Secretary of State Charles Hughes utilize the economic information he had given him to effectively present lucid proposals of disarmament. Fortunately they won stunning accord, the Five-Power treaty: Britain, Italy, Japan, France, and the US agreed to scrap over 2 millions tons of warships.


Dawes Plan:
During one of the conferences, Chicago banks and Chief negotiator, Charles Dawes, produced the Dawes plan. This reduced Germany's reparations from $542 million to $250 million annually and called on US and foreign banks to stimulate the German economy with $200 million in loans. J.P. Morgan raised $1 billion from American investors and the German economy appeared to stabilize.

McNary-Haugen Bill:
To protect agricultural interests from failure, congress proposed the McNary-Haugen bill, which called on the government to erect high tariffs on foreign produce and to purchase surplus U.S. crops on the world market for whatever prices they fetched.


Johnson-Reed Act:
After the World war the conditions of European nations, specifically Germans, were in a horrid economic, political, and societal condition. As a result, much of them left their lives to pursue a new life in the land of opportunity. However, the vast influx of immigrants imbalanced and crowded America's diversity. In order to preserve its diversity the government regulated the inflow of immigrants by allowing only 2% of the already settled European/Asian race to migrate. As a result annual immigration from transoceanic nations dropped by 80%.


Scopes Act:
The Scopes trial sought widespread attention on the issue of education. The ACLU to challenge the Tennessee constitutional law of teaching evolution in class utilized a 24-year-old biology teacher in Tennessee, John Scopes. He was immediately arrested and taken into trial, William Bryan; the secretary of state quickly sought his prosecution. However the trial dragged on as John incriminated himself and asked for Bryan's case on the bible and truth just to ridicule him. Bryan was ridiculed and convinced that not the entire bible was the "truth" and written by god.

Harlem Renaissance:
After the war racial discrimination and equality only got worse. As a result the blacks realized that they were the last advancing race and that they were being racially held back. They took stand and a movement led by Marcus Garvey swept the blacks, they became assertive and celebrate their rich culture. However even the cultural advances did not cease the racial prejudice, blacks were seen as inferior and even prohibited from the Harlem nightclubs.



Wednesday, November 28, 2012

Chapter 23: War and Society, 1914-1920


Chapter 23: War and Society, 1914-1920

1. Why did the US become involved in the First World War?
As the war began, all the nations turned to the US for supplies, resources, and artillery. However the British blockaded the German ports, this in turn severely damaged the already limited trade between Germany and plummeted trade with the Central powers 99% over 2 years. The British blockade clearly violated American neutrality. To avoid recession, the US did not retaliate by suspending loans or exports to Great Britain and therefore inevitably drew itself into the war.

2. What problems did the US government encounter as it sought to mobilize its people and economy for war, and how were they overcome?
 Mobilizing for “Total” War, Wilson created several centralized government agencies, each charged with supervising nationwide activity in its assigned economic sector. In order to pay for the massive amounts incurred for munitions, and supplies, Wilson raised taxes significantly: 67% income tax on the wealthy, 25% inheritance tax, and corporations had to pay excess profits tax. He established the CPI to popularize war, and their message imparted to many a deep love of country and sense of participation in grand democratic experiment. They used repression to achieve domestic unity, established the Food Administration substantially increased production and distribution of food to millions of troops and European civilians shifted railroad system from private to public control. War increased demand for industrial labor while cutting supply, as a result Wilson employed new workers recruited from rural south and encourage many women to enter the industrial workforce. In order to organize military labor he empowered administration to organize a draft for the Selective Service. However the U.S. Army faced difficult task of transforming ethnically and racially diverse millions into a professional fighting force and General Pershing segregated black troops from white. Despite the ethnic problems, American Expeditionary Force was impressive. By early 1918, CPI’s campaign had developed a darker, coercive side and they called for the report of neighbors, coworkers, and ethnics whom they suspected of subverting war effort. Evidently German Americans became objects of popular hatred. Espionage, Sabotage, and Sedition Acts (1917 and 1918) gave administration broad powers to silence and imprison dissenters.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
3. What were Woodrow Wilson's peace proposals?
At the Paris Peace Conference, Wilson announced the Treaty of Versailles and negotiated for lands controlled by “Big Four” (U.S., Britain, France, and Italy). Wilson also deemed his Fourteen Points that all nations need to abide by code of conduct: free trade, freedom of the seas, diplomacy, and disarmament. All nations need to recognize the principle of self-determination: redrawing map of Europe, give people of Austrian-Hungary empire independence, League of Nations. However, most of Wilson’s principles were omitted or amended. Wilson won an agreement on creation of League of Nations to serve as international parliament and judiciary, establishing rules of international behavior and resolving disputes between nations through rational and peaceful means.

4. Why were there so much American opposition to the League of Nations and what was the crux of their argument?
Two groups opposed this, the Irreconcilables and a group led by Senator Henry Lodge. From the beginning, the nation did not desire to involve itself in the war. Reluctantly being drawn in out of its neutrality the people became skeptical. And as thousands of citizens died aboard passenger liners such as the Lusitania and Sussex, the people doubted the nations sovereignty. Wilson consistency for 'peace without victory' through negotiation fell under doubt. Lodge and the Republicans claimed that changing the world and their foreign policy would put the US economy and autonomy at risk. They would rather sustain Roosevelt's vision of having a few great nations sphere of influence and to let Europe return to its politics as opposed to allowing every group of people could form their own nation.

5. Did the First World War enhance or interrupt the pursuit of liberty and equality on the home front?
As the world war ended society went into convulsion. Workers were set on obtaining the purchasing power they lost to inflation. Radicals saw conflict between capital and labor deeming an inevitable socialist revolution they claimed had already begun. Servicemen were nervous about regaining their jobs as female and Hispanic workers had taken their place and looked at blacks with hostility. Black veterans were in no condition to return to racist segregation and prejudice. And unfortunately the federal government put itself vulnerable and incapable of intervening in social conflicts because they immediately took down War industries board and National War Labor Board from their discomfort of the centralization of power during the war.

Terms:

Franz Ferdinand:
Archduke Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. He was assassinated on June 28, 1914 in Bosnia. This act was meant to protest the Austro-Hungarian imperialism and gave alliance of the Bosnians, Croatians and Balkans. However Austria-Hungary declared a war on Serbia, holding them responsible for the assassination.

Triple Entente:
Great Britain, France, and Russia.

Central Powers:
Also known as the Triple alliance: Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire.

Lusitania:
To combat British control Germany revealed the U-boat or submarine. The Lusitania was a British passenger liner carrying many innocent citizens amongst US citizens that was torpedoed by the German U-boat in suspicion of carrying munitions, which was later proven true. Germany had warned that they would attack ships carrying munitions and debated on the neutrality pledge but Germany claimed that Britain's blockade was a violation.

Sussex Pledge:
Essentially it was Germany's warning of unrestricted submarine warfare if the US failed to permit neutral ships to pass through Great Britain's naval blockade. Prior to the pledge, German U-boats sunk the French passenger liner Sussex that carried many American citizens.

'Peace without victory':
This was the slogan coined by Wilson during the First World War to put aside the suspicions of citizens and gain their support. These words drew deeply to American political roots and traditions, and as a result sustained a vast amount of enthusiasm by the people who had previously opposed distrusted state power and the war. However Wilson's hope for peace torn apart a year after the war had ended as violent labor dispute and race riots erupted.

Zimmerman Telegram:
Arthur Zimmerman, the German minister in Mexico, asked the Mexican Government to attack the US in the event of a war between the US and Germany. In return Germany would give them a large fee and regain the lost provinces of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. This was passed onto the US president in an infamous telegram known as the Zimmerman telegram.

General John. J Pershing:
Under the command of the US army, General Pershing organized and fashioned the ethically diverse millions of soldiers into a professional fighting force. However, instead of leaving the racial prejudice behind, he segregated black troop from white.
Fourteen Points:

Food Administration:
Headed by mining engineer and executive Herbert Hoover, the Food Administration placed an efficient food distribution system that delivered food to millions of troops and European civilians.
War Industries Board:

Selective Service Act:
During the war the US had to put everything aside to commence total war, use its GDP, economy, all of its resources to engage in war. To do such the US needed to build an army and the Wilson administration sought conscription. Furthermore, Wilson implemented the Selective Service act in 1917, drafting of most men of a certain age, regardless of their wealth, ethnicity, or social standing.

National War Labor Board:
The National War Labor Board brought together the representatives of labor, industry, and the public to resolve labor disputes. William Taft co-chaired with Samuel Gompers of the Federation of Labor.

Liberty Bonds:
Evidently during the war all resources, supplies and munitions incurred a vast debt. To pay these off Wilson proposed higher taxes on the wealthy along with 30-year Government bonds sold to individuals at a 3.5 percent annual return rate call Liberty bonds

CPI:
Committee on Public Information. A new agency set in place by Wilson to popularize the war. The CPI distributed millions of pamphlets explaining the war; it also trained a force of 75,000 four-minute men to deliver compelling and uplifting presentations about war. It exploded the media with direct information on the war and progress of the war.

Liberty Cabbage:
Renamed German American Word for Sauerkraut.

Immigration Restriction Act:
The prohibition act that restricted immigrants from vices like alcohol believing it would lead to corruption was implemented as the Immigration Restriction Act. However many immigrants refused to abide as they did not seek to be “reformed”.

Espionage:
During the war many of the immigrants currently living in America had several relatives in the Central powers and therefore were put under suspicion of espionage or spying and reporting information back to their native government.

Sabotage:
One of the main concerns toward the migrant families of the Central powers was sabotage. Many German families were treated with hostility in suspicion or conspiracy of espionage and or sabotage.

Sedition Acts:
Congress gave the administration the powers to silence and even imprison dissenters. They sought to repress those whom were expose the government, performing espionage, or sabotaging US plans.

Treaty of Versailles:
The peace agreement signed after the War in Versailles palace in France declaring the fault of Germany, demanding billions in reparations, and the disarmament of their military.

'Irreconcilables':
A group of midwestern progressives that opposed the war from the beginning and desired separation of the US from Europe were known as the Irreconcilables. They opposed the involvement of the US in the League of Nations.

Red Scare:
The widespread fear of the early 20th century that Radical was planning to establish a communist government on US soil. This outraged the government leading to further repressing action, and leading to it's climax on new years of 1920 when 33 homes were broken into on the suspect of radical communist gathering.

Sacco and Vanzetti:
The epitome of the Red Scare and height of repression was the case of two Italian American anarchists, Sacco and Vanzetti. They were accused of armed robbery and murder, and despite their pleas of innocence, the lack of strong evidence against them, and many protests, they were still convicted and sentenced to death.

Marcus Garvey:
Garvey was a Jamaican born Black Nationalist that demanded the separation and self-sufficiency of blacks. He led his movement with the ideal that they had a rich culture dated back many centuries and that they should achieve greatness by nationalizing in Africa. This brought much dispute between Du Bois and himself. However his movement endured.

New Negro:
The recognition and nationalization of the blacks as led by Marcus Garvey.

Chapter 22: Becoming a World Partner


Chapter 22: Becoming a World Partner

1. What were the causes of the Spanish American War?
As Roosevelt approached the 20th century he realized the depression had greatly stripped America from its vast wealth and prosperity. Even despite the objections of America valuing power of liberty, Roosevelt moved forward and took an opportunity to imperialize and take over the world trade. In 1898, America went to war with Spain exposing an opportunity to upgrade its military, acquire more colonies, and be an influence to Europe and Asia.

2. Over what countries did the US exert control between 1898 and 1917 and what were the mechanisms of control?
The US exerted control over the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and Cuba through imperial acquisition and military, specifically naval force.

3. What were the similarities and differences in the foreign policies of Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson?
All three were progressive reformers however their foreign policies had their similarities and differences. Roosevelt sought out a square deal, and was essentially an advocate of war. He believed that the US was superior and in turn needed to exercise its ability and build a military superior to other. He sought a balance of power amongst the industrial nations through negotiation rather than war. William Howard Taft seemed to direct toward expanding corporate investment overseas which many called "the dollar diplomacy". Essentially he supported friendly governments, sought to expand economic investments overseas, and maintained order in Latin America. Woodrow Wilson sought to safeguard the US's foreign investment while supporting and pushing democracy onto the other nations. In Mexico Wilson believed that a US style democratic government would that the property rights would be respected and US investments would stay secure.
Terms:

Queen Liliuokalani:
The queen who was put into power after the Hawaiian king was deposed during the political and economic instability of Hawaii caused by the tensions of American sugar plantations. However the queen sought to establish independence from America and evidently, her regime too was overthrown.

Frederick Jackson:
A famous American Historian who was famous for his vision of the frontier he delivered at the American Historical Association of Chicago in 1893 entitled "The significance of the Frontier in American History". He claimed that the expansion into the frontier expanded nationalism, democracy, individualism, and further expanded opportunities of advancement.


Alfred Thayer Mahan:
One of the most popular imperialists, known for his novel " The Influence of Sea Power Upon History", exclaimed that all great powers beginning with Rome had a strong naval military and controlled the seas. He also called to America to strengthen their naval power and exert their power to be known internationally. He also explained the necessity for a canal across Central America for US ships to cut through quickly for war. Evidently this became the Panama Canal.

Randolph Hearst:
Owner of the New York journal, Hearst revolutionized the newspaper by seeking out sensational and shocking stories to illustrate them in lurid detail. However they were accused of compelling readers with their titillating detail when true reports did not appear dramatic enough to boost circulation.


John Hay:
The secretary of state during John McKinley’s presidency that played a large role in the diplomatic tactics toward the Chinese and the open door policy. He sent open door notes asking the powers to grant reasonable harbor fees, respect China's sovereignty by enforcing their tariff duties and open it's Chinese sphere of influence to the merchants.


Rough Riders:
Much decorated Calvary unit organized Roosevelt to fight Cuba in 1898. During the Spanish American war 1 million men volunteered to fight. Amongst the Calvary was a regiment of Rough Riders who fought along side Negros. However, despite the great brevity their role was greatly downplayed.


Treaty of Paris:
The Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolutionary war and established America's independence from Great Britain.



Open Door:
In order to achieve America’s foreign policy objectives, John Hays opted to diplomatic strategy as opposed to military strategy. To prevent break up and to preserve the economic access to the whole of China, America sent open door notes asking the powers to grant reasonable harbor fees, respect China's sovereignty by enforcing their tariff duties and open it's Chinese sphere of influence to the merchants.



Roosevelt Corollary:
Ensuring US dominance of the Western Hemisphere was once of Roosevelt's first prioritized foreign policy objectives. As a result he established a corollary to the Monroe doctrine, which stated that any intervention in American politics would be considered hostility against the states. Roosevelt further declared that the US had the right to intervene in domestic affairs of nations in the Western Hemisphere to obstruct European advancement and prevent disorder. It was similar to the policy set against Cuba and Guam.



Hay-Pauncefote Treaty:
The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty released the prohibition of either country building a Central American Canal without the others participation (GB).  Roosevelt then immediately asked his advisers to construct a route across Nicaragua. However the owner of the already nearly finished Panamanian Canal asked 100 million for the territory, later on the price went down to 40 million and congress approved. This became later known as the Panama Canal.


Chinese exclusion act:
The land of opportunity was quite compelling for a vast number of immigrants, however many of the immigrants populated from Asia, specifically China and Japan. As a result of the overload of Chinese and Japanese immigrants, the US government put a halt to their immigration. The Chinese exclusion act was implemented in 1882 restricting Asians from migrating to the US. Further on, society would not condone the migration and began to segregate Asian school children releasing to the press that it would "contaminate" the other white students. Japan then reached a "gentleman's agreement" with the US and halted immigration. As a result Roosevelt pledge for Japanese equality.



Porfirio Diaz:
Diaz was the dictator of Mexico who was overthrown by democratic forces led by Francisco Madero leading to the Mexican Revolution in 1910. However, the US was not happy as Madero spoke of democratic reform scaring the foreign investors whom owned 90% of it's real estate, oil reserves, real estate, etc. As a result Madero was assassinated.